Rare blue and white seal Da Ming Jiajing Nian Zao & Wanli 'dragon' brush

A rare blue and white porcelain seal Da Ming Jiajing Nian Zao six-character mark in underglaze blue in a line and of the period. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

The top molded with a tortoise above lingzhi sprays on three sides and the reign mark on the fourth, the base with a four-character intaglio seal, Wo si guren - 1¾ in. (4.5 cm.) square - Estimate : $25,000 - $35,000

Provenance: Sydney L. Moss Ltd., London,

Literature! Paul Moss, Emperor, Scholar, Artisan, Monk: The Creative Personality in Chinese Works of Art, London, 1984, no. 69.

Notes: The seal, Wo si guren, may be translated as,' I am thinking of the ancients'.

Paul Moss in his entry for this rare seal in Emperor, Scholar, Artisan, Monk, London, 1984, no. 69, notes that "few blue and white porcelain seals are published or recorded". He goes on to quote the 16th century expert, Kan Yang, that because of the hardness of porcelain it is difficult to carve a seal, and consequently the characters are coarse. They usually have tortoise, roof-tile and 'nose-shaped' knops. A blue and white example with a roof-tile knop, bearing a Xuande mark and cyclically dated to 1433, was sold in our London rooms, 16 October 1969, lot 45, and was later sold at Doyle, New York, The F. Gordon Morrill Collection, 16 September 2003, lot 94. The inscription on that seal reads Zhe wei jin? wu ('kindness is the substance of compassion').

A rare blue and white 'dragon' brush rest. Wanli six-character mark in underglaze blue in a line and of the period (1573-1619). Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

Hollow-molded as three peaks formed by dragons leaping above rocks and waves, the mark within a recessed panel on the unglazed base - 6 3/8 in. (16.2 cm.) long - Estimate : $25,000 - $35,000

Provenance: C.T. Loo & Co., Paris, 1980s.

Notes: Porcelain brush rests of this type were made in two designs, with either three or five peaks; the three-peaked variety was perhaps the most fortuitous as the shape is fundamentally that of the Chinese character shan ('mountain'). A very similar example is illustrated in Chinese Ceramics in the Idemitsu Collection, Tokyo, 1987, pl. 734. See, also, the similar brush rest sold in these rooms, 3 June 1988, lot 258.

Christie's. For the Enjoyment of Scholars: Selections from the Robert H. Blumenfield Collection. 25 March 2010. New York, Rockefeller Plaza www.christies.com

Ming dynasty longquan celadons @ Christie"s NY, 26 March 2010

A rare longquan celadon jar. Southern Song/Ming dynasty, 12th-15th century. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

With compressed bulbous body and broad cylindrical neck rising to a lipped rim, covered overall with a sea-green glaze suffused with gold-tinted crackle, part of the interior of the small, shallow foot burnt red in the firing - 5½ in. (14 cm.) across mouth rim - Estimate : $30,000 - $50,000

Provenance: Acquired in 1989.

A rare massive longquan celadon charger, 14th/early 15th century. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

Very heavily potted with shallow rounded sides, covered all over with a glaze of olive-green tone except for two unglazed circles on the base burnt orange in the firing - 26¾ in. (68 cm.) diam. Estimate : $30,000 - $40,000

Provenance: Tai Sing Co., Hong Kong, 1991.
Cargill & Donna MacMillan Collection.

Notes: Longquan celadon chargers of this large undecorated type are rare. One of comparable size (68.5 cm.) in the Idemitsu Museum of Arts is illustrated in Selected Masterpieces from the Idemitsu Collection, vol. 1, Tokyo, 1986-91, no. 135. One of somewhat smaller size (54.5 cm.) is illustrated in Mayuyama, Seventy Years, vol. 1, Tokyo, 1976, p. 174, no. 515; and another (56.3 cm.) was sold in our Hong Kong rooms, 29 May 2007, lot 1478.

A large longquan celadon carved bowl. Ming dynasty, 15th century. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

Heavily potted with deep rounded sides, the exterior carved with two scrolling, leafy chrysanthemum stems below a zigzag diaper border, the center of the interior impressed with a peony sprig below freely carved peony scroll in the well, covered with a glaze of olive-green color, most of the base unglazed and burnt red in the firing - 12¼ in. (31.1 cm.) diam. Estimate : $12,000 - $15,000

Christie"s. Fine Chinese Ceramics and Works of Art Including Property from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections. 26 March 2010. New York, Rockefeller www.christies.com

A chinese longquan celadon tripod censer, Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

A chinese longquan celadon tripod censer, Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

12in. (30.5cm) diameter - Estimate : $800 - $1,200

Christie's. Christie's Interiors. 2 - 3 March 2010. New York, Rockefeller Plaza www.christies.com

A fahua baluster jar. Ming dynasty, late 15th/16th century

A fahua baluster jar. Ming dynasty, late 15th/16th century. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

Slip decorated and carved with scenes of scholars separated by trees and clouds between a band of petal lappets below and a ruyi collar above, with clouds on the neck, all in turquoise and biscuit on a dark purplish-blue ground, the interior glazed green, the base with a brown glaze wash - 14 in. (35.6 cm.) high - Estimate : $30,000 - $50,000

Notes: Fahua was popular during the middle Ming period, and manufactured in both northern and southern China. The term fahua means a design composed of lines. The glazes are poured inside the contours formed by the raised lines, which prevent the glazes from merging. Several other jars with different scenes are illustrated in the exhibition catalogue Chinese Arts of the Ming and Ch'ing Periods, Tokyo National Museum, 1963, no. 377; one in the Victoria and Albert Museum missing its neck, by L. Ashton and B. Gray, Chinese Art, London, 1953 ed., p. 279, pl. 108b; and another illustrated in A Pictorial Record of Early Ming Ceramics, Tokyo, 1963, no. 135.

Christie"s. Fine Chinese Ceramics and Works of Art Including Property from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections. 26 March 2010. New York, Rockefeller www.christies.com

A very rare slip-decorated white-glazed jar. Ming dynasty, 16th century

A very rare slip-decorated white-glazed jar. Ming dynasty, 16th century. Photo Christie's Image Ltd 2010

Unusually decorated around the sides with four melon vines and four squirrels seen biting a tendril of each vine, between a band of slender leaves below and dragons amidst clouds on the high shoulder, with further clouds on the slightly tapering neck, all in slip with incised details that has been left in the biscuit in contrast to the white glaze ground, the interior also glazed white and the base left unglazed - 12 in. (30.4 cm.) high - Estimate : $300,000 - $500,000

Provenance: Private Japanese collection.
Eskenazi, London.

Notes: This charmingly decorated jar is of a very rare type with white slip designs on a white-glazed ground. The use of contrasting unglazed areas has quite a long history in Chinese ceramics, and was employed with considerable success at the Longquan kilns in the Yuan period. At that time areas of ceramic vessels were reserved using wax, as on the well-known octagonal bottle with reserved molded panels illustrated by R. Scott, Imperial Taste - Chinese Ceramics from the Percival David Foundation, San Francisco, 1989, pp. 48-9, no. 21. Another method of achieving the contrast between glazed and unglazed areas was also seen at the Longquan kilns in the Yuan period. This technique involved sprig-molding elements and then placing them on top of the unfired glaze, so that during firing they floated on the glaze. This can be seen on a dragon and cloud-decorated dish seen on the front cover of Illustrated Catalogue of Celadon Ware in the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, London, rev. ed. 1997, no. 255. Because of small amounts of iron in the Longquan body and glaze material, the result of both of these techniques was to produce reddish-brown areas of matte body material against a background of glossy celadon green glaze.

The use of unglazed slip decoration against a glossy glazed ground can also be seen on a small number of late 15th century vessels, usually with the decoration appearing in white against a cobalt blue ground. These pieces are closer in style to the current jar, since the slip decoration is often rather painterly in its application. For a bowl with inverted rim in the collection of the Percival David Foundation, for example, decorated with a quite delicate bird on a blossoming branch see Illustrated Catalogue of Underglaze Blue and Copper Red Decorated Porcelains in the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, London, rev. ed. 2004, p. 40, no. A632. It is this type of decoration that is the precursor of that on the current vessel, which is also painterly in its design application. However, the current vessel is more subtle in that the matte white decoration is set against a glossy white ground. This style of decoration, which requires a more intimate examination of the piece, is reminiscent of the approach seen in the anhua (secret) decoration on fine 15th century white porcelains, which also require close examination for full appreciation of the designs.

A white Jiajing jar of similar form, and with decoration executed in similar slip to that on the current vessel, donated by Ernest Grandidier to the Musée Guimet, Paris, is illustrated by Xavier Besse and Anne-Marie Amon, La Chine des porcelains, Paris, 2004, pp.70-1, no. 17. (Fig.1) The Paris jar has a scene of plants and birds as its major band, while cranes flying amongst clouds decorate the shoulder. Unlike the current vessel, the iron in the slip on the Paris jar has oxidized to reddish brown. This may have been deliberate on the part of the potter, but in the mid-Ming period is more likely to have been a firing error. Like the current vessel, the base of the Paris jar is unglazed.
The combination of squirrels and melons provides an appropriately auspicious wish. Melons contain many seeds and thus symbolize many sons. The fact that the melons are on a long stem, which bears many fruit, each one of which would contain innumerable seeds, suggests never-ending generations of descendants. This view of melons is made very clear in the calligraphic inscription by Wang Ao (1450-1524) on Shen Zhou's (1427-1509) painting of pomegranate and melon vine, now in the Detroit Institute of Arts. This inscribed painting was produced around c. 1506-09 for a mutual friend, Wu Chunhong, who fervently longed for a son, and the subject of both painting and inscription carry the hope that Wu Chunhong would soon be granted his wish. Melons were a popular subjet for Chinese artists, not only as symbols of progeny, but because they were visually pleasing, and, as Qian Xuan (c. 1235-before 1307) explains in the inscription on his painting of melons, they could suggest cool relief from the heat of summer (see James Cahill, Hills Beyond a River: Chinese Painting of the Yuan Dynasty 1279-1368, New York, 1976, p. 29). Although squirrels are more often depicted with grapes, their combination with melons is equally auspicious. Squirrels are believed to be very successful in reproduction, and hence together with the melons they suggest an auspicious wish for a wealth of sons and grandsons. The dragons on the shoulders of the jar fly amongst clouds, as they are often depicted. However, these too provide an auspicious wish, since the Chinese word for cloud is pronounced yun, which sounds like one of the words for luck.

This lovely jar with its fluently applied slip decoration and delicately incised details thus combines, rarity, auspicious wishes, and aesthetic appeal.

Christie"s. Fine Chinese Ceramics and Works of Art Including Property from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections. 26 March 2010. New York, Rockefeller www.christies.com

Ecritoire rocaille, lion sur des remparts. Signé Saint Clément.

Ecritoire rocaille, lion sur des remparts. Signé Saint Clément.

dont la tour crénelée fait office d'essuie plume. L'encrier est dans le heaume. L'ensemble est à couverte blanche et décor jaune, rose, bleu pâle et de paysage lacustre sur l'écu et le fond de la partie plumier. Long. 35 cm, larg. 28 cm, haut. 17 cm. Adjugé 2 000€

Lundi 8 février – Rouillac, Vendôme www.rouillac.com

"Modeling Devotion: Terracotta Sculpture of the Italian Renaissance" @ the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum

Matteo Civitali, "Virgin and Christ Child", ca. 1480. Painted terracotta, ht. 39 inches.

BOSTON, MA.- In Italy during the Renaissance (around 1400 to 1600), an innovative form of sculpture was developed using fine clay that was shaped and modeled before being fired in a kiln. Called terracotta in Italian (meaning “baked earth”), this type of sculpture often has been overlooked by scholars in favor of the more commonly known Renaissance sculptures carved in marble or cast in bronze.

"Modeling Devotion: Terracotta Sculpture of the Italian Renaissance", a new scholarly exhibition at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, on view from February 25 to May 23, 2010, draws attention to this category of art through a presentation of fifteen terracotta sculptures collected by Isabella Gardner and recently conserved. Additional works of note are on view in the historic galleries.

“The beauty and significance of painted terracotta sculpture of the Italian Renaissance is only now being appreciated,” says Alan Chong, the William and Lia Poorvu Curator of the Collection at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum and exhibition curator. “This new attention has helped us identify the maker of one of our most impressive works, the Deposition of Christ by the almost completely unknown Giovanni de Fondulis.”

Rooted in new scholarship and conservation, Modeling Devotion reveals discoveries about these works and discusses their highly emotive and expressive qualities, their technique and condition, and even fakes and forgeries that were created in the late 19th century to fuel a growing market for Renaissance art.

In the 1890s, Isabella Gardner acquired several terracotta sculptures—including large multi-figured compositions of great rarity and that have survived in remarkable condition. “Unlike many collectors, who scraped off the worn paint to make the terracotta look more uniform, Isabella Gardner preserved their original coloring, even when not in perfect condition,” adds Chong.

Painted terracotta sculpture, especially large compositions of multiple figures, are rare in American museums. The Gardner Museum’s objects preserve much of their original paint. “We are pleased to shine fresh light on this unexplored aspect of Gardner’s collection,” says Anne Hawley, the Norma Jean Calderwood Director of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. “This exhibition not only highlights beautiful objects that might be overlooked by visitors to our galleries, but it focuses on materials and processes that are not usually associated with the Italian Renaissance. This exhibition truly uncovers new scholarship through our collection of historical art.” (photo: Benedetto da Maiano, John the Baptist, ca. 1480, painted terracotta, height 17-3/4 in.)

Modeling Devotion highlights works by Renaissance artists Matteo Civitali, Giovanni de Fondulis, Benedetto da Maiano, the Workshop of Andrea della Robbia and Giovanni della Robbia. In preparation for the exhibition, extensive technical investigation and conservation treatment of several works was undertaken, revealing important information about their construction and composition. “The generous support of the Sherman Fairchild Foundation allowed our conservators to study and treat several of our most important works,” adds Hawley. Furtherexamples of terracotta sculptures are on view on the third floor of the museum.

The title of the exhibition, Modeling Devotion, refers to the technique of shaping these sculptures in clay, as well as to their importance as an example for devotional behavior in Renaissance Italy. Terracotta sculptures of the Renaissance inspired prayer and served as models for happy family life. Terracotta sculptures were almost always colored, whether in paint or fired glazes, and because they were often three-dimensional and life-sized, they possessed a remarkable immediacy and realism. Clay can be handled easily, enabling the artist to add, remove, and shape the material as required. This freedom allowed artists not only to capture fine textures and details, but also to give their works powerful emotions. The most common subjects of such works were religious scenes meant to inspire the devotion of the faithful, or portraits that recorded individual likeness.

Modeling Devotion presents examples of the various processes employed by terracotta sculptors. For the larger works consisting of several figures, the artist would sculpt the entire ensemble in wet clay. The figures could be continually worked and even material added, a freedom not possible when carving stone or wood. When the clay had partially dried, the sculpture would be cut into pieces between the figures. Bulky areas of clay were hollowed out to create roughly uniform thickness. During firing, these smaller pieces would be less likely to crack. (photo: Giovanni della Robbia, Lamentation of Christ, ca. 1515, glazed terracotta, height 98 in. Long Gallery)

Highlights among Gardner’s fifteen terracotta sculptures in the exhibition include:

Matteo Civitali, Virgin and Christ Child, ca. 1480 • Painted terracotta, height 99 cm (39 in) • In the Virgin and Child, the subject is an unusual presentation of reciprocal love. The Christ Child kneels on the folds of the Virgin’s mantle. He looks up at her in prayer, as she gazes cast down on him in the same gesture. The composition is a striking example of Civitali’s ability to create highly evocative poses and interaction among sculptural figures. The dynamic relationship between the mother and child is conveyed through their bodies which lean into each other, while also opening up to the viewer in an almost impossibly balanced arrangement.

“The work is a wonderful gesture of mutual adoration—a rare element in art at this time,” says Chong.

Giovanni de Fondulis, Deposition of Christ and Carlotta of Lusignano, ca. 1480 • Painted terracotta, height 104 cm (49.9 in) • In contrast to the adoration seen in the Civitali, this large work further illustrates the extraordinary emotional intensity of terracotta sculpture—and of artist Giovanni de Fondulis in particular. The near life-size figures of Christ, the Virgin, and Saint John intertwine in a sinuous movement that is enhanced by an intensity of the figures’ facial expressions and gestures.
These two works provide a glimpse into the extreme emotions conveyed in terracotta sculpture. The contrast between the Virgin and Christ Child’s stillness and quietude is entirely different from the anguish and despair palpably seen in the Deposition of Christ. However, the two works were made at almost exactly the same time, using the same materials.

The exhibition further showcases a few examples of glazed terracotta sculptures collected by Isabella Gardner: Tabernacle by Andrea della Robbia; and Giovanni della Robbia’s monumental Lamentation of Christ, on view in the historic Long Gallery of the museum.

GIOVANNI DE FONDULIS • In its presentation of the Deposition, Modeling Devotion also affirms the attribution of the Gardner’s Deposition to a previously obscure Renaissance sculptor based in Padua, Giovanni de Fondulis. Specializing in highly emotional painted terracottas, de Fondulis’ importance has only recently been reconstructed by art scholars. One of twenty known examples of de Fondulis’ work, the Deposition of Christ and Carlotta of Lusignano in the Gardner Museum illustrates the extraordinary emotional intensity of terracotta sculptures. Several terracotta sculptures by de Fondulis have sold recently through Sotheby’s in New York. Recent research has uncovered new information about the artist and can confirm the attribution of the museum’s Deposition to him. The re-emergence of this innovative Renaissance sculptor is an important discovery. (Photo: Giovanni de Fondulis, Deposition of Christ and Carlotta of Lusignano, ca. 1480 (details of the Virgin and Christ), painted terracotta, height 49 in.)

FAKES AND FORGERIES • Collectors of the late 19th century craved Renaissance art of all types, terracotta sculpture being no exception. Because genuine works were rare and often in damaged condition, unscrupulous artists made objects in the style of the Renaissance to deceive unsuspecting buyers. Some of these works are in Isabella Gardner’s collection, including a Bust of a Woman by a French imitator of Renaissance work, made in painted and gilded wood and plaster, and another with the same title made of glazed terracotta. That Isabella Gardner kept two of these works that were later proven to be forgeries in her world-class collection also reveals much about her as a collector and museum founder. “To our eyes, these two portraits of beautiful young women look extremely graceful and rather modern,” adds Chong. “Even after the forgeries were revealed, Gardner left the objects in place; her initial fondness for them apparently undiminished by scholarship.”

SCHOLARSHIP AND CONSERVATION • In preparation for the exhibition, detailed study and conservation of three of Gardner’s terracotta sculptures—Matteo Civitali, Virgin and Child, ca. 1480; Benedetto da Maiano, Bust of John the Baptist, ca. 1480; and Giovanni de Fondulis, Deposition of Christ and Carlotta of Lusignano (details of the Virgin and Christ), ca. 1480—was undertaken. Funded by the Sherman Fairchild Foundation, this work focused on analysis of paint and the elemental constituents of terracotta from different regions of Italy, providing new insight into their composition and condition. This research reveals that the works by Civitali and de Fondulis preserve much of their original 15th-century paint. Benedetto da Maiano’s Bust of John the Baptist has been over-painted several times, including with a layer of black paint applied to make it appear as though it were made of bronze. (photo: Benedetto da Maiano, Virgin and Child, ca. 1495, painted terracotta, diameter 41 in.)

“What is most remarkable about these terracotta sculptures—beautiful in their own right—is that they are in such an extraordinary state of preservation,” says Valentine Talland, Objects Conservator at the Gardner Museum. “Terracotta and wood sculpture this old rarely survive to our generation with so much of their original paint. To have so many of our terracotta works presenting the majority of their original surface and paint is really unusual.”

Analysis also revealed new information about the method of modeling the figures, which were all done by hand, as indicated by the visible tool marks, the selective massing of the clay, and the individual expressiveness of the sculpture, and hollowed out with walls of uniform thickness. Methods of evaluation focused on X radiography and paint cross-sections and terracotta analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Raman spectroscopy, thermoluminescence, and other methods of evaluation conducted by the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Giovanni Bastianini (19th-century imitator of a Renaissance work), "Bust of a Woman", ca. 1860. Glazed terracotta, height 22 ½ inches

World's Greatest Collection of Snuff Bottles Shows Emperor's Personal Taste @ Bonhams

A double overlay sapphire-blue and white glass 'dragon' snuff bottle. Attributed to the Imperial glassworks, Beijing, 1760-1790. 6.82 cm high. HK$220,000-350,000. Photo: Courtesy Bonhams

LONDON.- Bonhams will sell 140 snuff bottles from the unique Bloch Collection in Hong Kong on May 28th. This Collection is the World’s largest and finest in private hands, comprising 1720 exceptional examples of these Chinese ‘miniature masterworks’.

The auction includes an Imperial enamel-on-copper snuff bottle personally commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor for his own use in the Forbidden City in Beijing. This stunning object is estimated to sell for £250,000 and is one of the finest and rarest examples of this highly regarded Chinese art form ever to be offered at auction.

The habit of using ground tobacco (snuff) was introduced to Asia by 17th century Western travellers from Europe, where it was an exotic import from the Americas. Chinese snuff takers found that traditional Western snuffboxes did not work well in the humid climates of Asia, and from the later 17th century Chinese craftsmen created small airtight bottles to keep the ground tobacco in perfectly dry condition.

These bottles became expensive luxury goods in their own right, not just for their contents. Produced by some of the country’s leading artists, they were given as gifts and tributes to the Emperor and others of the ruling classes. These snuff bottles soon assumed a value as status objects, and were produced from a variety of traditional Chinese artistic media; lacquer, porcelain, agate, jade, glass, ivory, and enamel-on-copper. A certain number were superbly crafted for a demanding audience familiar with outstanding works of art. The Bloch collection contains a remarkably wide range of these top-quality bottles.

As a growing number of collectors vie for the best snuff bottles their value has been growing. Over the past decade prices have increased fourfold making them a highly portable alternative investment. One bottle recently sold at auction for over USD 800,000, reflecting a remarkable surge in prices at the top end of the market.

Bonhams have arranged international previews of the Bloch Collection in New York, London, Taipei, Singapore and Hong Kong.

Colin Sheaf, Chairman of Bonhams Asia, and also head of Asian Art said: “ Bonhams is greatly honoured to be selling snuff bottles from this world famous collection whose contents span three centuries of top-level Chinese craftsmanship. Every knowledgeable and committed collector of Chinese art will be keen to own one or more of these snuff bottles as they represent the best of the best, which is a tribute to the discerning eye of their collector.”

A second sale of snuff bottles carefully selected from this remarkable Bloch Collection will be held in Hong Kong later this year.

Mary and George Bloch began to focus their collecting activities on Chinese snuff bottles in the mid-1980s, and formed the greatest single private collection ever known. Very few collections have been assembled on anything like a similar scale, the collection of the Imperial Qing court (formed I the 18 and 19th centuries) being the only real equivalent. William Bragge in the nineteenth century; Chester Beatty in the early-twentieth and Alex Cussons and Bob C. Stevens in the mid-twentieth century had large collections, and many others formed excellent, smaller collections, but none could approach the Bloch collection for its combination of size and quality.

An exhibition of the snuff bottles will be on view in New York from 21 to 25 March.

An iron-red and underglaze-blue porcelain 'dragon' snuff bottle. Imperial kilns, Jingdezhen, 17361795, Qianlong iron-red seal mark and of the period, 5.53 cm high. HK$60,000-120,000. Photo: Courtesy Bonhams

"Byzanz: Splendour and Everyday Life" @ the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bonn

Perfume brazier, 12th century, San Marco, Venice; © Procuratoria della Basilica di San Marco, Venezia

BONN.- Presenting more than 600 magnificent and historically meaningful exhibits and important artefacts from collections and archaeological excavations the exhibition shed light on many aspects of the history, archaeology and art of the Byzantine Empire.

It will offer an overview of the “Byzantine Millenium” (from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 324 A.D. to the conquest by the Ottomans in 1453), but will concentrate above all on the prospering of the Empire from the time of Justinian I (527–565 A.D.) until the plundering of Constantinople by western crusaders in 1204. Preciosous ivories, spectacular icons and manuscripts, architectural fragments, sculptures and everyday objects are presented in their original contexts. The main questions of the Byzantine state, Byzantine art and culture, society, economy, the Byzantine military, as well as daily life, etc., are to be discussed on the basis of “scenes”, by means of which these themes can be made highly accessible. The “scenes” will be reconstructed and animated with the help of computer graphics; archaeological finds will thus “speak”. Animated films will introduce the respective sections of the exhibition.

The exhibition will also illustrate the achievements of the various disciplines that have contributed to our understanding of Byzantine culture, and thus have enabled an understanding of the present: above all Byzantine studies, art history and archaeology, along with few other related fields.

Medaillon with St. Theodore, 12th century, Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, Kiev; © Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, Kiev

Antiquity has left its mark on Europe. In which way this happened clearly distinguishes Western from Eastern Europe. The upheavals of the Migration Period with the subsequent foundation of the barbarian kingdoms largely brought the development of the Mediterranean civilisation to a standstill in the Roman West. It was the church that managed the inheritance of the Greeks and Romans. Both the Carolingeans and agents of the powerful 14th century Renaissance consciously reached back to the time of Constantine the Great and carried the achievements of Antiquity forward.

The situation in the East was different: In Constantinople, the Greco-Roman world in its Christian version remained vibrant for centuries. The members of ruling circles regarded themselves as the heirs of Greece and Rome; they were conscious of the ancient past and could draw from it. Naturally, over the course of centuries adaptations were made to meet new conditions as they arose. Almost parallel to the rise of the Ottonian kings, Byzantium became a medieval state. Yet, substantial elements of Roman civilisation endured: The literary and scientific inheritance of Rome was preserved in scholarly circles and monastic scriptoria; the Empire likewise remained urban and centralised in its structure. Even in difficult periods of Byzantine history, the uniform system of taxation and finance continued to function and interregional trade ensured the supply for the cities. High-quality goods like silk textiles and masterful enamelled works were appreciated internationally.

The contribution of the Byzantine Empire to modern Europe is far more important than we are aware of. Because Constantinople resisted Arab expansion, the medieval West could continue developing. The christianisation of all of Southeastern and Eastern Europe, the Balkan countries, Ukraine and Russia was conducted by Byzantium; Cyrillic script was developed by Byzantine missionaries. The European legal system is based on the Corpus iuris civilis promulgated in Byzantium under the emperor Justinian I. The Italian Renaissance received substantial impulses from Byzantine erudition, not least from the classical Byzantine painting. Even Turkish culture is likewise partly based on Byzantine antecedents: for example, the typical architecture of the mosques developed from the Byzantine domed churches.

Necklace, Constantinople (?), around 600, RGZM, Mainz, © RGZM, Mainz

I. The problem of the sources
The extant sources from the Byzantine Empire are modest in comparison with their significance for European history. Historians must do with relatively few written sources since only fragments of the once rich archives survived today. Of the magnificent palaces and public buildings almost nothing remains. In essence, a few churches and their furnishings inform us about the size of the last ancient state in the Middle Ages. For this reason archaeological research is even more important, since its potential is nearly unlimited and its methods, in part due to the contributions of natural sciences, continue to develop. Only in the last decades special attention has been given to daily life of the general population of Byzantium, and there are new results from all regions of the Byzantine Empire that can be placed in a larger context. German and Austrian institutions are leading or involved in many of these undertakings.

II. The planned exhibition
The exhibition will make use of magnificent and historically meaningful exhibits and important artefacts from collections and archaeological excavations to shed light on many aspects of the history, archaeology and art of the Byzantine Empire. It will offer an overview of the “Byzantine Millenium” (from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 324 A.D. to the conquest by the Ottomans in 1453), but will concentrate above all on the prospering of the Empire from the time of Justinian I (527–565 A.D.) until the plundering of Constantinople by western crusaders in 1204. The main questions of the Byzantine state, Byzantine art and culture, society, economy, the Byzantine military, as well as daily life, etc., are to be discussed on the basis of “scenes”, by means of which these themes can be made highly accessible. The “scenes” will be reconstructed and animated with the help of computer graphics; archaeological finds will thus “speak”. Animated films will introduce the respective sections of the exhibition. The planned exhibition will also illustrate the achievements of the various disciplines that have contributed to our understanding of Byzantine culture, and thus have enabled an understanding of the present: above all Byzantine studies, art history and archaeology, along with few other related issues.

Portrait of Constantine I, 325–330, National Museum, Belgrade © Nationa Museum, Belgrade